The roundworm C. elegans is a simple animal whose nervous system has exactly 302 neurons. Each of the connections between those neurons has been comprehensively mapped, allowing researchers to study how they work together to generate the animal’s different behaviors.

Steven Flavell, an MIT associate professor of brain and cognitive sciences and investigator with The Picower Institute for Learning and Memory at MIT and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, uses the worm as a model to study motivated behaviors such as feeding and navigation, in hopes of shedding light on the fundamental mechanisms that may also determine how similar behaviors are controlled in other animals.

In recent studies, Flavell’s lab has uncovered neural mechanisms underlying adaptive changes in the worms’ feeding behavior, and his lab has also mapped how the activity of each neuron in the animal’s nervous system affects the worms’ different behaviors.

Such studies could help researchers gain insight into how brain activity generates behavior in humans. “It is our aim to identify molecular and neural circuit mechanisms that may generalize across organisms,” he says, noting that many fundamental biological discoveries, including those related to programmed cell death, microRNA, and RNA interference, were first made in C. elegans.

“Our lab has mostly studied motivated state-dependent behaviors, like feeding and navigation. The machinery that’s being used to control these states in C. elegans — for example, neuromodulators — are actually the same as in humans. These pathways are evolutionarily ancient,” he says.

Drawn to the lab

Born in London to an English father and a Dutch mother, Flavell came to the United States in 1982 at the age of 2, when his father became chief scientific officer at Biogen. The family lived in Sudbury, Massachusetts, and his mother worked as a computer programmer and math teacher. His father later became a professor of immunology at Yale University.

Though Flavell grew up in a science family, he thought about majoring in English when he arrived at Oberlin College. A musician as well, Flavell took jazz guitar classes at Oberlin’s conservatory, and he also plays the piano and the saxophone. However, taking classes in psychology and physiology led him to discover that the field that most captivated him was neuroscience.

“I was immediately sold on neuroscience. It combined the rigor of the biological sciences with deep questions from psychology,” he says.

While in college, Flavell worked on a summer research project related to Alzheimer’s disease, in a lab at Case Western Reserve University. He then continued the project, which involved analyzing post-mortem Alzheimer’s tissue, during his senior year at Oberlin.

“My earliest research revolved around mechanisms of disease. While my research interests have evolved since then, my earliest research experiences were the ones that really got me hooked on working at the bench: running experiments, looking at brand new results, and trying to understand what they mean,” he says.

By the end of college, Flavell was a self-described lab rat: “I just love being in the lab.” He applied to graduate school and ended up going to Harvard Medical School for a PhD in neuroscience. Working with Michael Greenberg, Flavell studied how sensory experience and resulting neural activity shapes brain development. In particular, he focused on a family of gene regulators called MEF2, which play important roles in neuronal development and synaptic plasticity.

All of that work was done using mouse models, but Flavell transitioned to studying C. elegans during a postdoctoral fellowship working with Cori Bargmann at Rockefeller University. He was interested in studying how neural circuits control behavior, which seemed to be more feasible in simpler animal models.

“Studying how neurons across the brain govern behavior felt like it would be nearly intractable in a large brain — to understand all the nuts and bolts of how neurons interact with each other and ultimately generate behavior seemed daunting,” he says. “But I quickly became excited about studying this in C. elegans because at the time it was still the only animal with a full blueprint of its brain: a map of every brain cell and how they are all wired up together.”

That wiring diagram includes about 7,000 synapses in the entire nervous system. By comparison, a single human neuron may form more than 10,000 synapses. “Relative to those larger systems, the C. elegans nervous system is mind-bogglingly simple,” Flavell says.

Despite their much simpler organization, roundworms can execute complex behaviors such as feeding, locomotion, and egg-laying. They even sleep, form memories, and find suitable mating partners. The neuromodulators and cellular machinery that give rise to those behaviors are similar to those found in humans and other mammals.

“C. elegans has a fairly well-defined, smallish set of behaviors, which makes it attractive for research. You can really measure almost everything that the animal is doing and study it,” Flavell says.

How behavior arises

Early in his career, Flavell’s work on C. elegans revealed the neural mechanisms that underlie the animal’s stable behavioral states. When worms are foraging for food, they alternate between stably exploring the environment and pausing to feed. “The transition rates between those states really depend on all these cues in the environment. How good is the food environment? How hungry are they? Are there smells indicating a better nearby food source? The animal integrates all of those things and then adjusts their foraging strategy,” Flavell says.

These stable behavioral states are controlled by neuromodulators like serotonin. By studying serotonergic regulation of the worm’s behavioral states, Flavell’s lab has been able to uncover how this important system is organized. In a recent study, Flavell and his colleagues published an “atlas” of the C. elegans serotonin system. They identified every neuron that produces serotonin, every neuron that has serotonin receptors, and how brain activity and behavior change across the animal as serotonin is released.

“Our studies of how the serotonin system works to control behavior have already revealed basic aspects of serotonin signaling that we think ought to generalize all the way up to mammals,” Flavell says. “By studying the way that the brain implements these long-lasting states, we can tap into these basic features of neuronal function. With the resolution that you can get studying specific C. elegans neurons and the way that they implement behavior, we can uncover fundamental features of the way that neurons act.”

In parallel, Flavell’s lab has also been mapping out how neurons across the C. elegans brain control different aspects of behavior. In a 2023 study, Flavell’s lab mapped how changes in brain-wide activity relate to behavior. His lab uses special microscopes that can move along with the worms as they explore, allowing them to simultaneously track every behavior and measure the activity of every neuron in the brain. Using these data, the researchers created computational models that can accurately capture the relationship between brain activity and behavior.

This type of research requires expertise in many areas, Flavell says. When looking for faculty jobs, he hoped to find a place where he could collaborate with researchers working in different fields of neuroscience, as well as scientists and engineers from other departments.

“Being at MIT has allowed my lab to be much more multidisciplinary than it could have been elsewhere,” he says. “My lab members have had undergrad degrees in physics, math, computer science, biology, neuroscience, and we use tools from all of those disciplines. We engineer microscopes, we build computational models, we come up with molecular tricks to perturb neurons in the C. elegans nervous system. And I think being able to deploy all those kinds of tools leads to exciting research outcomes.”

Nature Climate Change, Published online: 21 January 2025; doi:10.1038/s41558-024-02239-0

Accountability serves as an adhesive that binds commitment to results. Now, a study on corporate carbon emissions targets reveals that firms hold limited accountability to their targets, with little public backlash against missed targets.

Nature Climate Change, Published online: 21 January 2025; doi:10.1038/s41558-024-02236-3

Companies have set emissions reduction targets globally, yet whether they are held accountable for the outcomes remains uncertain. By examining the emissions targets that ended in 2020, researchers find low awareness of the failed targets and limited negative reactions from different stakeholders.

Nature Climate Change, Published online: 21 January 2025; doi:10.1038/s41558-024-02234-5

How the carbon stocks of the Arctic–Boreal Zone change with warming is not well understood. Here the authors show that wildfires and large regional differences in net carbon fluxes offset the overall increasing CO2 uptake.

The appointment would put Aaron Szabo at the heart of President Donald Trump's campaign against climate rules.

Quitting the Paris Agreement triggers a cascade of real-world impacts and signals the beginning of an aggressive agenda to undo U.S. climate policy.

President Biden has signed a new cybersecurity order. It has a bunch of provisions, most notably using the US governments procurement power to improve cybersecurity practices industry-wide.

Some details:

The core of the executive order is an array of mandates for protecting government networks based on lessons learned from recent major incidents­—namely, the security failures of federal contractors.

The order requires software vendors to submit proof that they follow secure development practices, building on a mandate that debuted in 2022 in response to ...

Is there nothing that squid research can’t solve?

“If you’re working with an organism like squid that can edit genetic information way better than any other organism, then it makes sense that that might be useful for a therapeutic application like deadening pain,” he said.

[…]

Researchers hope to mimic how squid and octopus use RNA editing in nerve channels that interpret pain and use that knowledge to manipulate human cells.

Blog moderation policy.

VPNs are having a moment. 

On January 1st, Florida joined 18 other states in implementing an age verification law that burdens Floridians' access to sites that host adult content, including pornography websites like Pornhub. In protest to these laws, PornHub blocked access to users in Florida. Residents in the “Free State of Florida” have now lost access to the world's most popular adult entertainment website and 16th-most-visited site of any kind in the world.

At the same time, Google Trends data showed a spike in searches for VPN access across Florida–presumably because users are trying to access the site via VPNs.  

How Did This Happen?

Nearly two years ago, Louisiana enacted a law that started a wave across neighboring states in the U.S. South: Act 440. This wave of legislation has significantly impacted how residents in these states access “adult” or “sexual” content online. Florida, Tennessee, and South Carolina are now among the list of nearly half of U.S. states where users can no longer access many major adult websites at all, while others require verification due to the restrictive laws that are touted as child protection measures. These laws introduce surveillance systems that threaten everyone’s rights to speech and privacy, and introduce more harm than they seek to combat. 

Despite experts from across civil society flagging concerns about the impact of these laws on both adults’ and children’s rights, politicians in Florida decided to push ahead and enact one of the most contentious age verification mandates earlier this year in HB 3. 

HB 3 is a part of the state’s ongoing efforts to regulate online content, and requires websites that host “adult material” to implement a method of verifying the age of users before they can access the site. Specifically, it mandates that adult websites require users to submit a form of government-issued identification, or use a third-party age verification system approved by the state. The law also bans anyone under 14 from accessing or creating a social media account. Websites that fail to comply with the law's age verification requirements face civil penalties and could be subject to lawsuits from the state. 

Pornhub, to its credit, understands these risks. In response to the implementation of age verification laws in various states, the company has taken a firm stand by blocking access to users in regions where such laws are enforced. Before the laws’ implementation date, Florida users were greeted with this message: “You will lose access to PornHub in 12 days. Did you know that your government wants you to give your driver’s license before you can access PORNHUB?” 

Pornhub then restricted access to Florida residents on January 1st, 2025—right when HB 3 was set to take effect. The platform expressed concerns that the age verification requirements would compromise user privacy, pointing out that these laws would force platforms to collect sensitive personal data, such as government-issued identification, which could lead to potential breaches and misuse of that information. In a statement to local news, Aylo, Pornhub’s parent company, said that they have “publicly supported age verification for years” but they believe this law puts users’ privacy at risk:

Unfortunately, the way many jurisdictions worldwide, including Florida, have chosen to implement age verification is ineffective, haphazard, and dangerous. Any regulations that require hundreds of thousands of adult sites to collect significant amounts of highly sensitive personal information is putting user safety in jeopardy. Moreover, as experience has demonstrated, unless properly enforced, users will simply access non-compliant sites or find other methods of evading these laws.

This is not speculation. We have seen how this scenario plays out in the United States. In Louisiana last year, Pornhub was one of the few sites to comply with the new law. Since then, our traffic in Louisiana dropped approximately 80 percent. These people did not stop looking for porn. They just migrated to darker corners of the internet that don't ask users to verify age, that don't follow the law, that don't take user safety seriously, and that often don't even moderate content. In practice, the laws have just made the internet more dangerous for adults and children.

The company’s response reflects broader concerns over privacy and digital rights, as many fear that these measures are a step toward increased government surveillance online. 

How Do VPNs Play a Role? 

Within this context, it is no surprise that Google searches for VPNs in Florida have skyrocketed. But as more states and countries pass age verification laws, it is crucial to recognize the broader implications these measures have on privacy, free speech, and access to information. While VPNs may be able to disguise the source of your internet activity, they are not foolproof—nor should they be necessary to access legally protected speech. 

A VPN routes all your network traffic through an "encrypted tunnel" between your devices and the VPN server. The traffic then leaves the VPN to its ultimate destination, masking your original IP address. From a website's point of view, it appears your location is wherever the VPN server is. A VPN should not be seen as a tool for anonymity. While it can protect your location from some companies, a disreputable VPN service might deliberately collect personal information or other valuable data. There are many other ways companies may track you while you use a VPN, including GPS, web cookies, mobile ad IDs, tracking pixels, or fingerprinting.

With varying mandates across different regions, it will become increasingly difficult for VPNs to effectively circumvent these age verification requirements because each state or country may have different methods of enforcement and different types of identification checks, such as government-issued IDs, third-party verification systems, or biometric data. As a result, VPN providers will struggle to keep up with these constantly changing laws and ensure users can bypass the restrictions, especially as more sophisticated detection systems are introduced to identify and block VPN traffic. 

The ever-growing conglomeration of age verification laws poses significant challenges for users trying to maintain anonymity online, and have the potential to harm us all—including the young people they are designed to protect. 

What Can You Do?

If you are navigating protecting your privacy or want to learn more about VPNs, EFF provides a comprehensive guide on using VPNs and protecting digital privacy–a valuable resource for anyone looking to use these tools.

No one should have to hand over their driver’s license just to access free websites. EFF has long fought against mandatory age verification laws, from the U.S. to Canada and Australia. And under the context of weakening rights for already vulnerable communities online, politicians around the globe must acknowledge these shortcomings and explore less invasive approaches to protect all people from online harms. 

Dozens of bills currently being debated by state and federal lawmakers could result in dangerous age verification mandates. We will resist them. We must stand up against these types of laws, not just for the sake of free expression, but to protect the free flow of information that is essential to a free society. Contact your state and federal legislators, raise awareness about the unintended consequences of these laws, and support organizations that are fighting for digital rights and privacy protections alongside EFF, such as the ACLU, Woodhull Freedom Foundation, and others.

If you’re fed up with Meta right now, you’re not alone. Google searches for deleting Facebook and Instagram spiked last week after Meta announced its latest policy changes. These changes, seemingly designed to appease the incoming Trump administration, included loosening Meta’s hate speech policy to allow for the targeting of LGBTQ+ people and immigrants. 

If these changes—or Meta’s long history of anti-competitive, censorial, and invasive practices—make you want to cut ties with the company, it’s sadly not as simple as deleting your Facebook account or spending less time on Instagram. Meta tracks your activity across millions of websites and apps, regardless of whether you use its platforms, and it profits from that data through targeted ads. If you want to limit Meta’s ability to collect and profit from your personal data, here’s what you need to know.

Meta’s Business Model Relies on Your Personal Data

You might think of Meta as a social media company, but its primary business is surveillance advertising. Meta’s business model relies on collecting as much information as possible about people in order to sell highly-targeted ads. That’s why Meta is one of the main companies tracking you across the internet—monitoring your activity far beyond its own platforms. When Apple introduced changes to make tracking harder on iPhones, Meta lost billions in revenue, demonstrating just how valuable your personal data is to its business. 

How Meta Harvests Your Personal Data

Meta’s tracking tools are embedded in millions of websites and apps, so you can’t escape the company’s surveillance just by avoiding or deleting Facebook and Instagram. Meta’s tracking pixel, found on 30% of the world’s most popular websites, monitors people’s behavior across the web and can expose sensitive information, including financial and mental health data. A 2022 investigation by The Markup found that a third of the top U.S. hospitals had sent sensitive patient information to Meta through its tracking pixel. 

Meta’s surveillance isn’t limited to your online activity. The company also encourages businesses to send them data about your offline purchases and interactions. Even deleting your Facebook and Instagram accounts won’t stop Meta from harvesting your personal data. Meta in 2018 admitted to collecting information about non-users, including their contact details and browsing history.

Take These Steps to Limit How Meta Profits From Your Personal Data

Although Meta’s surveillance systems are pervasive, there are ways to limit how Meta collects and uses your personal data. 

Update Your Meta Account Settings

Open your Instagram or Facebook app and navigate to the Accounts Center page. 

• You’ll find a link to Accounts Center on the Settings pages of both apps. If you have trouble finding Accounts Center, check Meta’s help pages for Facebook and Instagram. 
• If you use a web browser instead of Meta’s apps, visit accountscenter.facebook.com or accountscenter.instagram.com.

If your Facebook and Instagram accounts are linked on your Accounts Center page, you only have to update the following settings once. If not, you’ll have to update them separately for Facebook and Instagram. Once you find your way to the Accounts Center, the directions below are the same for both platforms.

Meta makes it harder than it should be to find and update these settings. The following steps are accurate at the time of publication, but Meta often changes their settings and adds additional steps. The exact language below may not match what Meta displays in your region, but you should have a setting controlling each of the following permissions.

Once you’re on the “Accounts Center” page, make the following changes:

1) Stop Meta from targeting ads based on data it collects about you on other apps and websites: 

Click the Ad preferences option under Accounts Center, then select the Manage Info tab (this tab may be called Ad settings depending on your location). Click the Activity information from ad partners option, then Review Setting. Select the option for No, don’t make my ads more relevant by using this information and click the “Confirm” button when prompted.

2) Stop Meta from using your data (from Facebook and Instagram) to help advertisers target you on other apps. Meta’s ad network connects advertisers with other apps through privacy-invasive ad auctions—generating more money and data for Meta in the process.

Back on the Ad preferences page, click the Manage info tab again (called Ad settings depending on your location), then click on Activity information from ad partners and then select the Ads shown outside of Meta option, select Not allowed and then click the “X” button to close the pop-up.

Depending on your location, this setting will be called Ads from ad partners on the Manage info tab.

3) Disconnect the data that other companies share with Meta about you from your account:

From the Accounts Center screen, click the Your information and permissions option, followed by Your activity off Meta technologies, then Manage future activity. On this screen, choose the option to Disconnect future activity, followed by the Continue button, then confirm one more time by clicking the Disconnect future activity button. Note: This may take up to 48 hours to take effect.

Note: This will also clear previous activity, which might log you out of apps and websites you’ve signed into through Facebook.

While these settings limit how Meta uses your data, they won’t necessarily stop the company from collecting it and potentially using it for other purposes. 

Install Privacy Badger to Block Meta’s Trackers

Privacy Badger is a free browser extension by EFF that blocks trackers—like Meta’s pixel—from loading on websites you visit. It also replaces embedded Facebook posts, Like buttons, and Share buttons with click-to-activate placeholders, blocking another way that Meta tracks you. The next version of Privacy Badger (coming next week) will extend this protection to embedded Instagram and Threads posts, which also send your data to Meta.

Visit privacybadger.org to install Privacy Badger on your web browser. Currently, Firefox on Android is the only mobile browser that supports Privacy Badger. 

Limit Meta’s Tracking on Your Phone

Take these additional steps on your mobile device:

• Disable your phone’s advertising ID to make it harder for Meta to track what you do across apps. Follow EFF’s instructions for doing this on your iPhone or Android device.
• Turn off location access for Meta’s apps. Meta doesn’t need to know where you are all the time to function, and you can safely disable location access without affecting how the Facebook and Instagram apps work. Review this setting using EFF’s guides for your iPhone or Android device.

The Real Solution: Strong Privacy Legislation

Stopping a company you distrust from profiting off your personal data shouldn’t require tinkering with hidden settings and installing browser extensions. Instead, your data should be private by default. That’s why we need strong federal privacy legislation that puts you—not Meta—in control of your information. 

Without strong privacy legislation, Meta will keep finding ways to bypass your privacy protections and monetize your personal data. Privacy is about more than safeguarding your sensitive information—it’s about having the power to prevent companies like Meta from exploiting your personal data for profit.

We are deeply disappointed that the Court failed to require the strict First Amendment scrutiny required in a case like this, which would’ve led to the inescapable conclusion that the government's desire to prevent potential future harm had to be rejected as infringing millions of Americans’ constitutionally protected free speech. We are disappointed to see the Court sweep past the undisputed content-based justification for the law – to control what speech Americans see and share with each other – and rule only based on the shaky data privacy concerns.

The United States’ foreign foes easily can steal, scrape, or buy Americans’ data by countless other means. The ban or forced sale of one social media app will do virtually nothing to protect Americans' data privacy – only comprehensive consumer privacy legislation can achieve that goal. Shutting down communications platforms or forcing their reorganization based on concerns of foreign propaganda and anti-national manipulation is an eminently anti-democratic tactic, one that the US has previously condemned globally.

I am always interested in new phishing tricks, and watching them spread across the ecosystem.

A few days ago I started getting phishing SMS messages with a new twist. They were standard messages about delayed packages or somesuch, with the goal of getting me to click on a link and entering some personal information into a website. But because they came from unknown phone numbers, the links did not work. So—this is the new bit—the messages said something like: “Please reply Y, then exit the text message, reopen the text message activation link, or copy the link to Safari browser to open it.”...

There are 50 to 100 expected executive orders. Many will focus on boosting fossil fuels and reversing climate policy.

The Democratic star had promised his department would be integral to Biden administration efforts to tackle climate change and create good-paying jobs.

The former New York lawmaker addressed issues on climate change, regulations and EPA operations.

A continuation of dry conditions means more kindling for fires raging in the region. But heavy rainfall brings its own dangers, too, including mudslides.

The lawsuit comes as the fee, which is set to go into effect Friday, faces potential reversal by congressional Republicans.

The failure to finalize power purchase agreements comes as President-elect Donald Trump retakes control of the White House.

Doug Parker oversaw the nation’s first-ever proposed heat protections for workers.

David Turk's advice to transition leaders: "Don't start taking tools off the table."